New reports |
Research periodicals | Archived reports 2000-2007
The impact of churn and migration on population estimates for
Central London
December 2007
This research was commissioned from the London School of
Economics by Central London Forward (CLF), a new cross sector
alliance led by six Central London boroughs. The report shows that
Central London is absorbing a disproportionate concentration of
international migrants and has a transient population of visitors,
migrants and commuters much larger and more rapidly growing that in
any other urban area within the UK.
The Role of the Commercial Sector in Economic
Development
November 2007
A group of academics and consultants affiliated with London
South Bank University was appointed to identify and evaluate
different models for private sector delivery of economic
development services in the areas of: i) Business enterprise and
support; ii) Training and skills; iii) Property portfolio and asset
management; iv) Public realm and urban space management. The
research examines a range of delivery models, evaluating their
efficacy and cost-effectiveness and assesses the scope for a
greater involvement of the commercial sector in this work.
London's Place in the UK Economy, 2007 - 08
October 2007
In the sixth edition of this annual report, Oxford Economics
evaluates and measures London's pivotal importance to the health
and success of the wider UK economy. Special topics in this edition
include the future of manufacturing in London; the role of tourism;
and the threats and opportunities for London from emerging market
economies.
The Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI) 2
September 2007
This is the second edition of the GFCI, produced by Z/Yen Group
Limited. The GFCI evaluates the competitiveness of 50 financial
centres worldwide by bringing together the results of online
surveys completed by financial services leaders and 54 separate
indices of competitiveness.
The Impact of Recent Immigration on the London Economy
July 2007
This report, by the London School of Economics and Political
Science, examines the impact of recent, current and projected waves
of international migration both on the competitiveness of the
London economy and on the economic welfare of residents and
workers. The report finds that years of unprecedented
migration to London have strongly boosted the London economy and
had a neutral effect on housing rental – but boroughs need a change
in Government policy to adapt to increasing pressures on public
services.
Comparative Implementation of EU Directives (lll) - Insurance
Mediation
May 2007
This report, by CRA International, surveys the implementation of
the Insurance Mediation Directive (IMD) across the EU15 and
provides a detailed comparative analysis of the process in four
countries: France, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK. The report
analyses the manner and impact of implementation of IMD upon
insurance intermediaries throughout the EU.
The Importance of Wholesale Financial Services to the EU Economy
2007
May 2007
The centre for economic and business research (cebr)
investigates the role, structure and importance of wholesale
financial services in the European Union. The report
contributes to the debate on how to evaluate the economic impact of
the Financial Services Action Plan (FSAP) and on the timeliness of
the exercise. It also investigates the importance of
wholesale financial services to the EU economy within the context
of globalisation; analyses the degree of integration within
European wholesale financial services; and analyses the impact and
importance of clusters within the industry.
Stamp duty: its impact and the benefits of its abolition
May 2007
This report, written by Oxera and commissioned by the City of
London Corporation, the London Stock Exchange, the Association of
British Insurers and the Investment Management Association,
assesses the impacts of abolishing stamp duty. The report looks at
the impacts of stamp duty on the cost of capital of UK listed
companies; savers with particular reference to pensions; trading
behaviour and investment decisions; and government expenditure and
tax revenues.
City of London Resident Population Analysis
April 2007
This is the first time the City has published a comprehensive
document presenting all the demographic, health and education
information and statistics for its residents in the Square
Mile.
The report is a planned response, in partnership with the City
& Hackney Primary Care Trust, to the Government White Papers
Every Child Matters, Our Health, Our Care Our Say and
Commissioning framework for health and well-being.
The Competitive Impact of London’s Financial Market
Infrastructure
April 2007
This report, written by Bourse Consult, analyses the development
of London’s financial market infrastructure, assesses its impact on
the City’s performance, and identifies the policy imperatives that
should be addressed to sustain competition and international
competitiveness in the future.
The Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI) 1
March 2007
The GFCI, produced by Z/Yen Group Ltd, evaluates the
competitiveness of 46 financial centres worldwide. This
edition is the first of what will be a biannual index, charting how
financial centres rate relative to each other on an ongoing
basis.
The European Post-Trading Industry: Assessing the Impact of Market
and Regulatory Changes
February 2007
NERA Economic Consulting examines the European Commission's
recent Working Document on the post-trading industry and analyses
the potential strengths and weaknesses of this approach. The report
aims to assist both the Commission and the industry in moving
towards the shared goal of more efficient and cost-effective
financial market infrastructure.
2006 Research Review
January 2007
An overview of the activities of the City of London's research
programme during 2006. This document reviews all publications under
four broad topics: London and the UK Economy, City Industries,
Financial Regulation and Employment. An additional section features
a digest of statistics relating to the City.
Comparative Implementation of EU Directives (ll) - Money
Laundering
December 2006
The British Institute of International and Comparative Law
(BIICL) examines the comparative implementation of the EU Second
Money Laundering Directive. The report examines the way in which
the Directive has been implemented in the United Kingdom, Spain,
Italy, Greece, Poland and Lithuania and the arrangements for
monitoring and enforcing compliance with the legislation. It is
hoped that the findings of the report will help to identify the
changes that will be required to implement the Third Money
Laundering Directive by December 2007.
London's Place in the UK Economy, 2006-07
November 2006
In the fifth edition of this annual report, Oxford Economic
Forecasting highlight the increased importance of London’s wealth
and tax generating capabilities at a time when the overall UK
budget balance is continuing to deteriorate. The report gives a
clear message to policy makers that London’s continued growth and
high productivity are critical for the future health of the
nation.
Scenarios for India and China 2015: Implications for the City of
London
October 2006
SAMI Consulting and Oxford Analytica explore the impact of India
and China’s long-term economic and political development on the
Square Mile. The report investigates three alternative visions of
the possible development of China and India up to 2015 and how
these might produce changes in the relationship of each to the
City’s financial services sector and the rest of the world.
Graduate Skills and Recruitment in the City
September 2006
The report, commissioned jointly by the City of London
Corporation and the Financial Services Skills Council (FSSC),
examines the relationship between Financial and Related Business
Services employers operating from the City of London and the UK’s
universities. The report provides an analysis of the perceptions of
the skill requirements for graduate entrants, an examination of
current recruitment practices, and an assessment of views on the
performance of UK Higher Education Institutions as providers of
appropriately skilled graduate labour.
Evaluating Better Regulation: Building the System
September 2006
This report, written by the European Policy Forum, draws upon
interviews with European institutions, including the European
Parliament, European Commission, the European Court of Auditors, as
well as members of national audit bodies and academic experts. It
makes several proposals on how EU institutions might improve the
auditing of regulation, and recognises the commitment to establish
impact assessments amongst European policy makers but calls for a
more co-ordinated approach.
Emissions Trading and the City of London
September 2006
This report, written by Consilience Energy Advisory Group, looks
at the business opportunities offered by emissions trading,
ascertains how the market has developed and identifies the next
generation of trading opportunities for the City of London. It also
investigates how emissions trading could be utilised by local
authorities and proposes ideas for introducing energy efficiency
measures in new buildings and local transport networks.
VivaCity! The Economic Impact of the City Arts Cluster
July 2006
This report, written by Oxford Economic Forecasting, provides an
economic impact analysis of the arts attractions within the City
and its immediate surroundings, and the activities funded by the
City of London Corporation. This research was commissioned to
acquire greater involvement and support from the Government in
supporting the City arts cluster. The report demonstrates the
substantial impact the cluster has on the London and UK
economies.
The Cost of Capital: An International Comparison
June 2006
This report, undertaken by Oxera Consulting Ltd and jointly
commissioned by City of London Corporation and the London Stock
Exchange, compares the cost of listing and raising capital on
different exchanges in Europe and the United States.
European Government Bond Markets: transparency, liquidity and
efficiency
May 2006
This report, produced by the Centre for Economic Policy Research
(CEPR), was commissioned by a consortium of the City of London
Corporation, Association of British Insurers, European Primary
Dealers Association, International Capital Market Association,
Investment Management Association and the London Investment Banking
Association. The report is intended to inform the associations’
input into the European Commission’s review of bond market
transparency, required by MIFID (The Markets in Financial
Instruments Directive).
European Corporate Bond Markets: transparency, liquidity and
efficiency
May 2006
The Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) was commissioned
by a consortium of the City of London Corporation, Association of
British Insurers, European High Yield Association, International
Capital Market Association, Investment Management Association and
the London Investment Banking Association to provide an in-depth
analysis of corporate bond markets across Europe. As with the
government bond study, this report is intended to inform the
associations’ input into the European Commission’s review of bond
market transparency, required by MIFID. The Commission’s review is
due to be completed by November 2007.
The Importance of Wholesale Financial Services to the EU Economy
2006
April 2006
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This research, undertaken by the centre for economics and
business research (cebr), demonstrates the importance of wholesale
financial activity to the prosperity of the European Union within
the context of globalisation.
2005 Research Review
January 2006
An overview of the activities of the City of London's research
programme during 2005. This document reviews all publications under
four broad topics: London and the UK Economy; City Industries,
Financial Regulation and Regeneration and Employment. An additional
section looks ahead to forthcoming publications, including research
into aspects of the competitiveness / skills interface.
Comparative Implementation of EU Directives (I) – Insider Dealing
and Market Abuse
December 2005
This report analyses the implementation of EU financial services
directives in five Member States and provides a fascinating insight
into the realities of transforming such directives into national
regulation.
The Future of Clearing and Settlement in Europe
December 2005
The purpose of this report, by Bourse Consult, is to contribute
to the current debate on creating an efficient and integrated
clearing and settlement infrastructure for Europe. It is based on a
series of in-depth interviews with senior managers of banks, trade
organisations, regulatory bodies, clearing houses and exchanges,
MEPs and EU officials in London, Amsterdam, Brussels, Frankfurt and
Paris. It presents their views on the vision for the future of
European clearing and settlement and the best way of achieving that
vision.
The Competitive Position of London as a Global Financial
Centre
November 2005
This research, conducted by Z/Yen Limited, is based on a survey
of opinion of professionals in the financial services industry in
over 20 countries. Senior decision makers were asked about the key
components of competitive advantage, and how the world’s major
financial centres ranked against these criteria. The report shows
that London and New York have emerged as the clear leaders in the
ranking of global financial centres.
London's Place in the UK Economy, 2005-06
November 2005
In the fourth edition of this annual report, Oxford Economic
Forecasting analyse the London economy in its regional and national
context. Central to the report is the calculation of the net
contribution of the London economy to UK public finances. This
year’s edition also has a special topic on London’s position as a
‘World City’.
Commuter Flows in London and the wider South East 2001 to 2016 /
21
October 2005
This project was commissioned by a consortium of the Corporation
of London, the Greater London Authority, the London Development
Agency, Transport for London, the Strategic Rail Authority, South
East England Regional Assembly, South East England Development
Agency, East of England Regional Assembly, East of England
Development Agency and the Association of London Government. The
work was led by Cambridge Econometrics and was conducted in
collaboration with WSP Group and the London School of
Economics.
The report establishes a common methodology and database model
for estimating commuting flows into, out of, and within London and
its neighbouring regions of South East England and East of England
(which the report classifies as the Wider South East). This
methodology is used to identify the commuting implications of
certain policy, economic development and transport scenarios
envisaged by 2016 and 2021.
The Transatlantic Dialogue in Financial Services: The Case for
Regulatory Simplification and Trading Efficiency
September 2005
The ABA Securities Association (ABASA), the Bankers’ Association
for Finance and Trade (BAFT), the British Bankers’ Association
(BBA), the Futures Industry Association (FIA), the Futures and
Options Association (FOA) and the Securities Industry Association
(SIA) with the support of the Corporation of London, have published
a major study which calls for regulatory convergence of
transatlantic financial markets. The study underscores the need for
establishing a much more coherent and cost-efficient regulatory
framework for wholesale transatlantic business in financial
services. The report includes a comparative legal and regulatory
analysis by Clifford Chance.
Skills in the City: Entry Level Opportunities in the Financial and
Business Services Sector
July 2005
This report, by Greater London Enterprise, investigates entry
level opportunities available in the City. It provides an
understanding of the skills and qualifications required to carry
out these jobs; assesses their level of availability; and reviews
methods of recruitment used.The report highlights that there is a
strong need to raise awareness overall of the opportunities
available in the City and how and where they can be accessed.
Anti-Money Laundering Requirements - Costs, Benefits and
Perceptions
June 2005
In association with the Institute of Chartered Accountants in
England and Wales, the Corporation appointed Z/Yen to obtain a
reasoned and quantified assessment of the costs and benefits of the
UK anti-money laundering requirements, as they effect the work of
the City of London, with a comparison of the equivalent costs borne
by other jurisdictions (USA, Germany, France, Italy and
others).
The Future of UK Asset Management: Competitive Position and
Location Choice
May 2005
This study, commissioned in conjunction with the Investment
Management Association and written by Oxera, examines location
choice in the asset management industry, the competitive position
of the UK as a centre for asset management, and the major
influences that may affect this position in the future.
Business Creation and Closures in Camden
April 2005
Using the London Borough of Camden as a case study, Public and
Corporate Economic Consultants (PACEC) explore some of the critical
dynamics of SME business creation and failure, and by so doing shed
light on the challenges facing smaller businesses in the Central
London Business District.
Rebalancing UK and European Regulation
April 2005
This report by the European Policy Forum examines the way in
which regulatory impact analysis is coming of age both in the
United Kingdom and in the European Union. It also provides a
practical model for policy makers to follow in order that the
transposition of EU regulations takes place in a cost effective
manner.
Off-shoring and the City of London
March 2005
A team of academics led by Professor Brian Scott-Quinn (ISMA
Centre, University of Reading) provides a considered assessment of
the extent and impact of off-shoring on London's international
financial services industry.
Childcare in the City
March 2005
This report, by the Centre for Economic & Social Inclusion,
investigates the childcare requirements of the City workforce and
provisions provided by employers. The research also quantifies
existing demand and assesses the impact that childcare
responsibilities have on attendance at work.
The City's Importance to the EU Economy 2005
February 2005
This report, by the centre for economics and business research,
has been restructured to extend coverage to the full EU25 and
investigates the impact of EU enlargement on the City of London.
The report also has a special feature on hedge funds and
derivatives – both areas in which London has a disproportionately
high share of international markets.
2004 Research Review
January 2005
An overview of the activities of the Corporation's research
programme during 2004. This document reviews all publications under
four broad topics: London and the UK Economy; City Industries,
Financial Regulation and Regeneration and Employment. An additional
section distils the conclusions of recent reports published as part
of the new City Research Series, and looks ahead to
research currently being conducted in the field of financial
services regulation.
An Absence of Regulatory Design?
Recent European Directives and the Market for Corporate Bonds
December 2004
This report highlights a worrying example of potential European
regulatory design failure. Alistair Milne and Mario Onorato, from
the Cass Business School, conducted in-depth interviews with fund
managers across the EU and their conclusions suggest that the
combined impact of the Prospectus Directive and the Transparency
Directive could damage the EU market for corporate bonds.
Distortion or Distraction: US Restrictions on EU Exchange Trading
Screens
November 2004
John Board, Charles Sutcliffe and Stephen Wells consider a
central issue in the development of transatlantic capital markets -
whether permitting EU exchanges to deploy their equity trading
screens in the US (which is currently prohibited) would
significantly increase the integration of EU and US equity
markets.
London's Place in the UK Economy 2004
October 2004
London’s Place in the UK Economy aims to take a long-term view
of the London economy in the context of recent developments. The
authors of the 2004 edition, Ian Gordon, Jan Stockdale, Tony
Travers and Christine Whitehead from the London School of
Economics, provide more compelling evidence of London’s central
role in promoting the health and wealth of the nation, with a
special section on crime and policing in the capital.
Financial Innovation in UK Property Markets: A Review of Trends
and Prospects
October 2004
Colin Lizieri and Charles Ward, from the University of Reading,
review recent innovation in commercial real estate finance, funding
and investment in the UK in the context of fiscal and regulatory
change and compare developments with those found in other market
places. The research finds that real estate investment is a dynamic
and growing sector in Europe with London remaining a centre of
innovation.
Understanding the Print and Publishing Sectors in the City
Fringe
September 2004
This is an investigation into the nature of the print and
publishing industries in the City Fringe area of London. It is
intended to form part of the evidence base from which the City
Fringe Partnership can develop a strategy for supporting the
industries in the Fringe area. Co-funded with the London
Development Agency, the report was written by the Burns Owens
Partnership.
The Future of London’s Maritime Services Cluster: A Call for
Action
August 2004
This report, by Fisher Associates, provides a detailed
understanding of how the London maritime services cluster works,
how it competes with rival centres and what policy measures are
necessary to ensure London maintains its current pre-eminence.
Reducing the Regulatory Burden: The Arrival of Meaningful
Regulatory Impact Analysis (RIA)
July 2004
Graham Mather and Frank Vibert of the European Policy Forum
provide a conceptual overview of regulation and the prospects for
regulatory improvement within the EU. They highlight the usefulness
and importance of applying regulatory impact assessments (RIAs) in
reducing the burden of EU regulation. The report also contains an
introduction by Sir Nigel Wicks, Chairman of the Corporation’s EU
Advisory Group.
The Direct Costs of Clearing and Settlement: an EU-US
Comparison
June 2004
This report, written by NERA Economic Consulting, is the first
in the Corporation’s new City Research Series which aims to
investigate issues of direct relevance to City practitioners and to
policy-makers who regulate the international financial services
industry. The study confirms that the direct costs of clearing and
settling an equity transaction in Europe are significantly higher
than in the US.
London’s Linkages with the Rest of the UK
May 2004
This study by Oxford Economic Forecasting seeks to explore the
wider links and relationships that tie London into the country as a
whole, where there is a readily held view that London has grown at
the expense of other parts of the UK, and that Britain would be
better off if funds were diverted away from the capital to other
regions. The study highlights that this is not necessarily the case
and that the UK as whole has contributed to and benefited from
London activity.
The Outlook for Banks Operating in the City of London
March 2004
The objective of this research, carried out by Radley
Associates, is to understand the main factors affecting the number
of banking jobs that are located in London and, therefore, the
expected demand for city office space in the medium to long
term.
The City's Importance to the EU Economy 2004
January 2004
The Corporation has returned to the Centre for Economic and
Business Research for the sixth edition of this important annual
research report. The latest edition maintains its focus on the
City's major role in global financial markets and pivotal position
on the European financial scene, and once again measures the
benefits gained by the entire EU from the high concentration of
financial services in London.
2003 Research Review
January 2004
This document details the activities of the Corporation's
research programme during 2003. It reviews all publications under
four broad topics: The City and the London Economy; Transport and
Infrastructure; Europe and the City; Regeneration and Employment.
An additional section looks ahead to London's future development,
identifying broad policy themes that have emerged from the research
programme.
Comparative Public Transport Investment in Major European
Cities
November 2003
Despite the widely held belief that London's transport
infrastructure has suffered from years of under-investment, there
has been little systematic comparison of London's investment record
to those in other European cities. This report, by KPMG, undertakes
just such a comparison of the extent and effectiveness of
investment in transport in London to that in Paris, Frankfurt,
Amsterdam and Brussels over the past thirty years.
London's Place in the UK Economy 2003
The latest edition of this annual report, by the London School
of Economics, gives a clear, authoritative and up to date survey of
London’s role in the UK economy, encompassing economic, fiscal,
social and environmental aspects of the relationship. The 2003
edition contains a special feature, providing a critical analysis
of education and skills provision in the capital.
Growth Prospects of City Industries
September 2003
This report, by Lombard Street Research, updates their 1998
study. It shows that, despite the recent downturn, City-type
employment in Greater London grew by an impressive 2.2% per year –
some 50,000 new jobs - between 1995 and 2002. Looking ahead, annual
growth in City-type employment is projected to remain around the
1.75% mark forecast in the 1998 report.
Economic Effects of Transport Delays on the City of London
July 2003
This investigation by Oxford Economic Forecasting produces
estimates of the cost to businesses in the City of transport delays
caused by congestion, inadequate service provision and recurrent
service breakdowns or sub-standard operation. It is based both on
economic modelling from available transport statistics and on
case-study evaluation work with sample City businesses and their
workers.
Sizing up the City
June 2003
This report was commissioned from the Centre for the Study of
Financial Innovation to explore the perceptions held by a wide
range of City practitioners and observers of London’s
competitiveness as a financial centre compared to New York, Paris
and Frankfurt. Input was obtained from 350 institutions: banks,
fund managers, insurers, technology providers, professional firms,
trade associations and public officials by means of questionnaires
and interviews. More than half the firms spoken to were under
non-British ownership.
Unemployment in the City Fringe Area of London
May 2003
This report was commissioned by the LDA, the Corporation of
London and City Fringe Partnership. Its primary purpose is to
identify and analyse the underlying causes of continuing high
levels of unemployment in the City Fringe Partnership area and make
recommendations for action in the future.
The Future of Stock Exchanges in European Union Accession
Countries
May 2003
This report was commissioned from the Centre for Economic Policy
Research. It analyses the role of macroeconomic variables,
financial reform and other country-specific factors in determining
the structure and dynamics of European Union Accession Country
stock exchanges. It goes on to evaluate the viability and likely
future evolution of these exchanges in the context of current
trends in trading systems.
Financial Services Clustering and its significance for London
February 2003
An in-depth study of the nature of
financial services business clusters in and around the City of
London. The project seeks to map the clusters themselves and
provide analysis on the manner in which they have evolved, the
dynamic processes through which they function and evolve, and the
requirements to maintain their sustainability.
The City's importance to the EU Economy
January 2003
This annual report investigates the links between the City of
London and the economy of the European Union.
The Impact on the City of UK Eurozone Membership: the Banking
Industry
November 2002
Sir John Cass Business School was commissioned by the
Corporation of London to investigate the potential impact of
possible eurozone membership scenarios on wholesale and retail
banking in the UK. Not concerned with opinion as to whether the UK
should adopt the euro, rather the report identifies potential
effects of three alternative scenarios: these being, that the UK
join the eurozone; the UK does not join, or the UK postpones the
decision until at least the next Parliament.
Aviation Services for the City of London
October 2002
Air transport plays a major role in the UK economy, especially
the South East. Aviation currently supports around 160,000 jobs in
the South East and has a major influence on the level of UK inward
tourism, itself responsible for 4.5% of total GDP. Oxford Economic
Forecasting were commissioned to survey the current and future air
and related transport needs of businesses in both the City and the
surrounding boroughs.
The Changing City - Population, employment and Land Use Changes
since the 1943 County of London Plan
October 2002
This report analyses the long-term changes in the demand for
land use and buildings in London and the degrees to which these
have been met by changes on the ground. Starting with the 1943
Forshaw and Abercrombie Plan and concluding with the Mayor’s 2002
Draft London Plan the study investigates the main forces behind the
demand and supply of commercial and residential land use over the
last 60 years.
ICT in the City Fringe
October 2002
Research commissioned on behalf of the City Fringe Partnership
(CFP) with the intention of identifying and analysing the ICT
sector in the City Fringe area, which is a broad crescent running
along the north-west, north and east borders of the City of London.
The project lays particular emphasis on identifying skills
requirements and analysing recruitment and training practices with
a view to informing CFP's future investment in training and support
activities.
London's Place in the UK Economy 2002
This report examines London's place and position in the UK
economy. And how they may evolve during the next few years. It
looks at London's developing role in recent last decades; clarifies
some of the strengths and weaknesses of the London economy,
particularly in relation to the rest of the UK and to central
government. The annual special feature in this edition examines the
role of London housing.
Tall Buildings, Sustainability and the City
February 2002
This report examines the options available for constructing
sustainable tall buildings. It does so against a background of
pressure for change arising out of emerging policies of relevance
to the City.
The report looks at the effect of tall buildings on their local
environment and analyses new developments in the design,
construction and operation of tall buildings. This is followed by a
discussion of 'best practice' examples of new design ideas from
around the world.
The City of London ICT Infrastructure Review
August 2001
This report is the result of an intensive study into the effects
of Information, Communications and Technology (ICT) in the City of
London over the last and the next 10 years, with particular regard
to the infrastructure around telecommunications and Internet
datacentre provision, and the impact on business and future
provisioning.
Financial Innovations in Property Markets
July 2001
This report reviews the financial implications of the
institutional lease for the development of new financial products
in the UK property market. It provides examples of securitisation
of property income or assets and identifies the advantages and
costs. It also highlights securitisation features which may persist
in future market environments.
The Impact of Archaeology on Property Development in the City of
London
February 2001
This report discuses the archaeological concerns associated with
property development in the City of London.
The research was conducted by CgMS and is based on an
investigation of 36 projects, under way and completed since 1997,
illustrating a range of development and archaeological
considerations.
London New York Study
June 2000
This report analyses the major economic and demographic trends
in London and New York as they have developed over the course of
the 1980’s and 1990’s. It explores the key driving forces of both
economies identifying the major issues and key challenges facing
each city at the beginning of the 21st century.